Current findings in plant photobiology and lighting control will provide the information needed by horticultural scientists to establish optimal cannabis production protocols and to maximize cannabinoid yields. Until now, our knowledge of cannabis production has stemmed from experiments performed when growing cannabis was illegal ( Vanhove et al., 2011). With decades of research committed to understanding the impact of narrow light spectra on plant growth, the basis of wavelength effect on photosynthesis and photomorphogenesis for greenhouse crops has been well investigated ( Massa et al., 2008 Bugbee, 2016 Bantis et al., 2018). Both methods initiate flowering however, reducing photoperiod potentially leads to plant yield reduction. For other commonly grown flowering plants in the horticultural industry, flowering is initiated via night interruption ( Yamada et al., 2008 Blanchard and Runkle, 2010 Park et al., 2016). Exceptionally, it has been reported that reducing the photoperiod to approximately 12 h is a common practice in the cannabis production industry to initiate flowering ( Chandra et al., 2017). However, commercial growers in the cannabis industry are still referring to unreliable information, given the lack of peer-reviewed reports on cannabis production. In the general horticultural industry, growers use different light spectra and intensities to influence plant morphology, secondary metabolism, and flowering ( Lefsrud et al., 2008 Kohyama et al., 2014 Wang et al., 2016). In this regard, the selection of electrical lighting systems and light spectra are of utmost importance, as they determine operation costs and consequent product pricing. As such, indoor cannabis production has been classified as one of the most energy-intensive industries in the US ( Warren, 2015). Growing cannabis plants solely with indoor lighting allows a continuous and uniform cannabinoid yield for high-quality products, but it requires high-energy inputs. During the vegetative growth stage, high light intensity is needed to maximize cannabis growth and proper photoperiodicity control is necessary to initiate budding ( Arnold, 2013). Although cannabis ( Cannabis sativa ssp.) has been harvested for food (seeds), fiber (stems), and medicine (buds) throughout most of human history ( Mercuri et al., 2002 Clarke and Merlin, 2013), its listing as an illegal drug to date has left little published scientific literature.Ĭommercial cannabis production typically occurs indoors and requires environmental controls such as humidity and lighting for both vegetative growth and budding (flowering) developmental stages ( Hillig, 2005). Such full legalization allows industry and researchers to work together to explore the uncharted science of this once-forbidden plant. Canada has become the second country in the world to legalize the use of both medicinal and recreational cannabis ( Dyer, 2018). The legal status of cannabis production is shifting, causing a rapidly expanding market in both North America and Europe. The basics of plant photobiology (photosynthesis and photomorphogenesis) and electrical lighting systems are discussed, with an emphasis on how the light spectrum and lighting strategies could influence cannabis production and secondary compound accumulation. By manipulating LED light spectra and stimulating specific plant photoreceptors, it may be possible to minimize operation costs while maximizing cannabis biomass and cannabinoid yield, including tetrahydrocannabinol (or Δ 9-tetrahydrocannabinol) and cannabidiol for medicinal and recreational purposes. Some artificial plant lighting practices will require improvements for cannabis production. Advantages and disadvantages of widespread greenhouse lighting systems that use high pressure sodium lamps or light emitting diode (LED) lighting are known. Further, light properties play a critical role in plant vegetative growth and reproductive (flowering) developmental stages, as well as in biomass, secondary metabolite synthesis, and accumulation. Plant photosynthesis and photomorphogenesis are influenced by light wavelength, intensity, and photoperiod via plant photoreceptors that sense light and control plant growth. However, more knowledge transfer from plant studies and horticultural communities to commercial cannabis plant growers is needed. The legal and commercial production of the cannabis plant is a relatively new, rapidly growing, and highly profitable industry in Europe and North America. This review presents recent developments in plant photobiology and lighting systems for horticultural crops, as well as potential applications for cannabis ( Cannabis sativa and C.
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